diff --git a/utils/gramatron/construct_automata/Cargo.toml b/utils/gramatron/construct_automata/Cargo.toml
index 2bc2f87666..60853c61d7 100644
--- a/utils/gramatron/construct_automata/Cargo.toml
+++ b/utils/gramatron/construct_automata/Cargo.toml
@@ -15,9 +15,9 @@ categories = ["development-tools::testing", "emulators", "embedded", "os", "no-s
 # See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html
 
 [dependencies]
-libafl = { path = "../../../libafl" }
+libafl = { path = "../../../libafl", default-features = false }
 serde_json = "1.0"
 regex = "1"
 postcard = { version = "1.0", features = ["alloc"], default-features = false } # no_std compatible serde serialization format
 clap = { version = "4.0", features = ["derive"] }
-log = "0.4.20"
+# log = "0.4.20"
diff --git a/utils/gramatron/construct_automata/src/main.rs b/utils/gramatron/construct_automata/src/main.rs
index 0c94b337fa..dd3dd403e0 100644
--- a/utils/gramatron/construct_automata/src/main.rs
+++ b/utils/gramatron/construct_automata/src/main.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use std::{
-    collections::{HashMap, HashSet, VecDeque},
+    collections::{HashSet, VecDeque},
     fs,
     io::{BufReader, Write},
     path::{Path, PathBuf},
@@ -49,51 +49,52 @@ fn read_grammar_from_file<P: AsRef<Path>>(path: P) -> Value {
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug)]
-struct Element {
+struct Element<'src> {
     pub state: usize,
-    pub items: Rc<VecDeque<String>>,
+    pub items: Rc<VecDeque<&'src str>>,
 }
 
 #[derive(Default, Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash)]
-struct Transition {
+struct Transition<'src> {
     pub source: usize,
     pub dest: usize,
-    pub ss: Vec<String>,
-    pub terminal: String,
-    pub is_regex: bool,
-    pub stack: Rc<VecDeque<String>>,
+    // pub ss: Vec<String>,
+    pub terminal: &'src str,
+    // pub is_regex: bool,
+    pub stack_len: usize,
 }
 
 #[derive(Default)]
-struct Stacks {
-    pub q: HashMap<usize, VecDeque<String>>,
-    pub s: HashMap<usize, Vec<String>>,
+struct Stacks<'src> {
+    pub q: Vec<Rc<VecDeque<&'src str>>>,
+    pub s: Vec<Box<[&'src str]>>,
 }
 
-fn tokenize(rule: &str) -> (String, Vec<String>, bool) {
+fn tokenize(rule: &str) -> (&str, Vec<&str>) {
     let re = RE.get_or_init(|| Regex::new(r"([r])*'([\s\S]+)'([\s\S]*)").unwrap());
+    // let re = RE.get_or_init(|| Regex::new(r"'([\s\S]+)'([\s\S]*)").unwrap());
     let cap = re.captures(rule).unwrap();
-    let is_regex = cap.get(1).is_some();
-    let terminal = cap.get(2).unwrap().as_str().to_owned();
+    // let is_regex = cap.get(1).is_some();
+    let terminal = cap.get(2).unwrap().as_str();
     let ss = cap.get(3).map_or(vec![], |m| {
         m.as_str()
             .split_whitespace()
-            .map(ToOwned::to_owned)
+            // .map(ToOwned::to_owned)
             .collect()
     });
     if terminal == "\\n" {
-        ("\n".into(), ss, is_regex)
+        ("\n", ss /*is_regex*/)
     } else {
-        (terminal, ss, is_regex)
+        (terminal, ss /*is_regex*/)
     }
 }
 
-fn prepare_transitions(
-    grammar: &Value,
-    pda: &mut Vec<Transition>,
-    state_stacks: &mut Stacks,
+fn prepare_transitions<'pda, 'src: 'pda>(
+    grammar: &'src Value,
+    pda: &'pda mut Vec<Transition<'src>>,
+    state_stacks: &mut Stacks<'src>,
     state_count: &mut usize,
-    worklist: &mut VecDeque<Element>,
+    worklist: &mut VecDeque<Element<'src>>,
     element: &Element,
     stack_limit: usize,
 ) {
@@ -102,12 +103,12 @@ fn prepare_transitions(
     }
 
     let state = element.state;
-    let nonterminal = &element.items[0];
+    let nonterminal = element.items[0];
     let rules = grammar[nonterminal].as_array().unwrap();
     // let mut i = 0;
     'rules_loop: for rule in rules {
         let rule = rule.as_str().unwrap();
-        let (terminal, ss, is_regex) = tokenize(rule);
+        let (terminal, ss /*_is_regex*/) = tokenize(rule);
         let dest = *state_count;
 
         // log::trace!("Rule \"{}\", {} over {}", &rule, i, rules.len());
@@ -115,33 +116,33 @@ fn prepare_transitions(
         // Creating a state stack for the new state
         let mut state_stack = state_stacks
             .q
-            .get(&state)
-            .map_or(VecDeque::new(), Clone::clone);
-        if !state_stack.is_empty() {
-            state_stack.pop_front();
+            .get(state.wrapping_sub(1))
+            .map_or(VecDeque::new(), |state_stack| (**state_stack).clone());
+
+        state_stack.pop_front();
+        for symbol in ss.into_iter().rev() {
+            state_stack.push_front(symbol);
         }
-        for symbol in ss.iter().rev() {
-            state_stack.push_front(symbol.clone());
-        }
-        let mut state_stack_sorted: Vec<_> = state_stack.iter().cloned().collect();
-        state_stack_sorted.sort();
+        let mut state_stack_sorted: Box<_> = state_stack.iter().copied().collect();
+        state_stack_sorted.sort_unstable();
 
         let mut transition = Transition {
             source: state,
             dest,
-            ss,
+            // ss,
             terminal,
-            is_regex,
-            stack: Rc::new(state_stack.clone()),
+            // is_regex,
+            // stack: Rc::new(state_stack.clone()),
+            stack_len: state_stack.len(),
         };
 
         // Check if a recursive transition state being created, if so make a backward
         // edge and don't add anything to the worklist
-        for (key, val) in &state_stacks.s {
-            if state_stack_sorted == *val {
-                transition.dest = *key;
+        for (dest, stack) in state_stacks.s.iter().enumerate() {
+            if state_stack_sorted == *stack {
+                transition.dest = dest + 1;
                 // i += 1;
-                pda.push(transition.clone());
+                pda.push(transition);
 
                 // If a recursive transition exercised don't add the same transition as a new
                 // edge, continue onto the next transitions
@@ -151,18 +152,23 @@ fn prepare_transitions(
 
         // If the generated state has a stack size > stack_limit then that state is abandoned
         // and not added to the FSA or the worklist for further expansion
-        if stack_limit > 0 && transition.stack.len() > stack_limit {
+        if stack_limit > 0 && transition.stack_len > stack_limit {
             // TODO add to unexpanded_rules
             continue;
         }
 
+        let state_stack = Rc::new(state_stack);
+
         // Create transitions for the non-recursive relations and add to the worklist
         worklist.push_back(Element {
             state: dest,
-            items: transition.stack.clone(),
+            items: Rc::clone(&state_stack),
         });
-        state_stacks.q.insert(dest, state_stack);
-        state_stacks.s.insert(dest, state_stack_sorted);
+
+        // since each index corresponds to `state_count - 1`
+        // index with `dest - 1`
+        state_stacks.q.push(state_stack);
+        state_stacks.s.push(state_stack_sorted);
         pda.push(transition);
 
         println!("worklist size: {}", worklist.len());
@@ -205,11 +211,11 @@ fn postprocess(pda: &[Transition], stack_limit: usize) -> Automaton {
     if stack_limit > 0 {
         let mut culled_pda = Vec::with_capacity(pda.len());
         let mut blocklist = HashSet::new();
-        //let mut culled_pda_unique = HashSet::new();
+        // let mut culled_pda_unique = HashSet::new();
 
         for final_state in &finals {
             for transition in pda {
-                if transition.dest == *final_state && transition.stack.len() > 0 {
+                if transition.dest == *final_state && transition.stack_len > 0 {
                     blocklist.insert(transition.dest);
                 } else {
                     culled_pda.push(transition);
@@ -223,7 +229,9 @@ fn postprocess(pda: &[Transition], stack_limit: usize) -> Automaton {
         let culled_finals: HashSet<usize> = finals.difference(&blocklist).copied().collect();
         assert!(culled_finals.len() == 1);
 
-        for transition in &culled_pda {
+        let culled_pda_len = culled_pda.len();
+
+        for transition in culled_pda {
             if blocklist.contains(&transition.dest) {
                 continue;
             }
@@ -234,15 +242,11 @@ fn postprocess(pda: &[Transition], stack_limit: usize) -> Automaton {
             }
             memoized[state].push(Trigger {
                 dest: transition.dest,
-                term: transition.terminal.clone(),
+                term: transition.terminal.to_string(),
             });
 
             if num_transition % 4096 == 0 {
-                println!(
-                    "processed {} transitions over {}",
-                    num_transition,
-                    culled_pda.len()
-                );
+                println!("processed {num_transition} transitions over {culled_pda_len}",);
             }
         }
 
@@ -261,8 +265,8 @@ fn postprocess(pda: &[Transition], stack_limit: usize) -> Automaton {
         */
 
         Automaton {
-            init_state: initial.iter().next().copied().unwrap(),
-            final_state: culled_finals.iter().next().copied().unwrap(),
+            init_state: initial.into_iter().next().unwrap(),
+            final_state: culled_finals.into_iter().next().unwrap(),
             pda: memoized,
         }
     } else {
@@ -275,7 +279,7 @@ fn postprocess(pda: &[Transition], stack_limit: usize) -> Automaton {
             }
             memoized[state].push(Trigger {
                 dest: transition.dest,
-                term: transition.terminal.clone(),
+                term: transition.terminal.to_string(),
             });
 
             if num_transition % 4096 == 0 {
@@ -288,8 +292,8 @@ fn postprocess(pda: &[Transition], stack_limit: usize) -> Automaton {
         }
 
         Automaton {
-            init_state: initial.iter().next().copied().unwrap(),
-            final_state: finals.iter().next().copied().unwrap(),
+            init_state: initial.into_iter().next().unwrap(),
+            final_state: finals.into_iter().next().unwrap(),
             pda: memoized,
         }
     }
@@ -308,7 +312,7 @@ fn main() {
     let mut pda = vec![];
 
     let grammar = read_grammar_from_file(grammar_file);
-    let start_symbol = grammar["Start"][0].as_str().unwrap().to_owned();
+    let start_symbol = grammar["Start"][0].as_str().unwrap();
     let mut start_vec = VecDeque::new();
     start_vec.push_back(start_symbol);
     worklist.push_back(Element {
@@ -328,8 +332,7 @@ fn main() {
         );
     }
 
-    state_stacks.q.clear();
-    state_stacks.s.clear();
+    drop(state_stacks);
 
     let transformed = postprocess(&pda, stack_limit);
     let serialized = postcard::to_allocvec(&transformed).unwrap();